Can you affect different parts of the quads with certain exercises?
Yes, you can.
Biceps? Triceps? Back? Calves?
Yes, you can.
If you are talking about "circular" type of joints such as the shoulders and neck then, yes. If you are talking about bend/straighten leverage joints then, no. By changing the angle you can work different portions of the delts and in some cases totally excluding a part of that muscle from the movement. For example, doing a rear delt movement will practically if not completely eliminate any contraction of the front delt.
When doing a curl, training the bicep, which simply involves moving the forearm towards the shoulder, meaning you can cut off your hand and still train your bicep fully. No matter what angle you place your arm in or how you twist you forearm the entire bicep will contract. You can't just train and specialize a certain part of that muscle. You can turn your forearm into a position where you will work the brachialis more and take some of the load off the bicep but if you think you can train the upper/low inner/outer head and think it will make any difference that would be incorrect.
People believe it, they try it, it never works. If your biceps naturally peak like Beckles, Coe, and Robinson then it doesn't matter what part of the bicep head you train? If it doesn't, you can do anything you want, like Kevin Levrone did, and still not have peak biceps.
Same like with calfs and quads. You are not going to get any more "inner calf" or hit that vastus medialis (tear drop) muscle by positioning or spacing out your toes or
feet. As your muscles get bigger and stronger the shape they take is genetically predetermined. I once read Boyer Cole's quad routine and he said that by taking a narrown stance he would hit the outer quad more. He never had any appreciable outer quad development though he had pretty good legs.
Don't believe me, try what Brignole did and specialize in whatever specific area you want and just to that for six months.